Gender Discrimination In Employment Research Articles

The whiteness of ‘sex discrimination’: theorising white feminist ideology in politics

The year 2025 will mark 50 years since the prohibition of gender discrimination in employment in Europe. Feminist narratives of this time have often been ones of progress, despite Black feminist critique of how such legislation effaced racially minoritised women’s experiences. Why was gender equality legislation designed to mainly benefit white privileged women? What discourses were involved? Meanwhile, while the term ‘white feminism’ has recently been popularised, there has been relatively little investigation of what it comprises in politics in Europe. Drawing on cross-disciplinary empirical research on UK gender equality legislation involving analysis of parliamentary debate, archival research and oral history, this article contributes to theorisation of the tenets of white feminism, namely, as a political ideology wherein gender is constructed as the most important marker of social inequality and, specifically, as being more important than racial inequality. Ultimately, such specification aims to make white feminism in politics impossible to render neutral.

Female Employment Dilemma Analysis

 From a global perspective, discrimination against women in employment is a common problem, which is caused by a series of reasons such as differences in the physiological structure of men and women. Improving women's labor participation rate and allowing them to enter the labor market more freely and equally will be beneficial for improving women's overall social status and promoting harmonious economic and social development. Starting from the current situation of women's employment, this article analyzes the specific manifestations of discrimination against women in the employment market, and deeply analyzes the causes of discrimination against women in employment. Drawing on the relevant experience of developed countries, suggestions and reflections are proposed for China to promote women's equal participation in labor and employment, and to address issues such as gender discrimination in employment.

Characteristics of women’s careers: international studies review

Introduction. Career development has become one of the most significant areas of human resource management in modern organizations. Despite considerable progress in increasing the representation of women in various industries and also a multiplication of women holding senior positions, today, the segregation of the labour market persists. Women and men are unevenly distributed in such fields as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics; there are differences in wages and career advancement. Traditional career models have certain limitations in research and, therefore, require revision and updating.Purpose. Generalization of foreign experience of gender studies in the field of women’s professional careers.Materials and methods. The scientific review is presented by a systematic analysis of foreign gender studies over the past 10-15 years.Theoretical justification. The authors describe the main methods of studies examining women’s career advancement and also consider the causes of gender segregation, such as career choice, gender discrimination in employment and the workplace, and the phenomenon of the “glass ceiling”. Factors influencing the choice of career strategies are competitiveness, self-esteem, self-efficacy, the influence of cultural perceptions of gender roles, self-stereotyping, the presence or absence of role models, the social costs of women’s careers and the possibility of their recognition by society as professionals.Discussion and conclusion. A possible way to solve the problem of women’s career advancement may be to reduce the pressure of gender stereotypes, including even the distribution of household and child-rearing responsibilities and, ultimately, contributing to the improvement of well-being and life quality in general.

On the Legal Regulation of Gender Discrimination in Employment

On the Legal Regulation of Gender Discrimination in Employment

Gender Discrimination in Employment: BRICS Countries Overview

This article investigates the phenomenon of gender equality in employment in the BRICS countries where it is one of the factors hampering the economic development and basic human rights. The authors examine the international obligations of these states under the human rights treaties of the United Nations Organization (UNO) and the International Labour Organization (ILO), compare the national anti-discriminatory norms with the international standards (ILO Conventions and the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women) and evaluate the observations of the relevant international bodies recently adopted in respect of the BRICS states. In particular, the activities of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women and the ILO Committee of Experts on the Application of Conventions and Recommendations are reviewed. In the paragraphs that follow, the national legislation and case-laws are examined. Furthermore, the reasons for the persistent gender stereotypes in the labor market, as well as the general attitude toward women’s roles in society in each country are reviewed. The authors identify the obstacles to achieving true gender equality in the workplace and formulate recommendations for improving protections against discrimination of women in employment as well as ensuring equal access to employment and promotion.

ВПЛИВ РІШЕНЬ ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКОГО КОМІТЕТУ СОЦІАЛЬНИХ ПРАВ НА ЗМІСТ НОРМ ТРУДОВОГО ПРАВА

The article is devoted to a study of the influence of the decisions of the European Committee of Social Rights on the content of labour law. In particular, the author argues that the decisions of the European Committee of Social Rights have a direct influence on the content of labour law norms, although they have a recommendatory meaning. Since our state has developed a plan of measures to implement the provisions of the European Social Charter, the government reports annually on the implementation of its provisions. The content of these reports demonstrates the changes that have already been made to existing legislation concerning employees' labour rights and those planned to be made in the near future. There is an urgent need to prohibit the employment of people under the age of 15 in view of the international obligations that our state has undertaken. It is proposed to amend Article 188 of the Labour Code and amend the third paragraph of Article 188. It is proposed to establish the concept of a light work for minors and a list of related work when improving the draft law «On Amendments to Certain Legislative Acts of Ukraine on Regulation of Domestic Workers' Labour». The author proposes to develop social adaptation programmes for people with disabilities, a compulsory element of which should be the employment of such people, vocational guidance taking into account their capabilities and the needs of the labour market, as well as the establishment of stricter liability for employers for violating the right to work of people with disabilities. It is noted that in order to overcome gender discrimination in employment, it is necessary to establish the characteristics of equal and equivalent work, taking into account the type of tasks undertaken by employees, skills, education and qualification requirements, and to oblige employers to report to the Public Employment Service on differential pay data, as these are the indicators of compliance with Article 20 of the European Social Charter. It is substantiated that the Committee has repeatedly pointed out in its conclusions the importance of transparency in remuneration, the application of the principle of equal pay for work of equal value, formally supported by the Government of Ukraine. Ukraine has approved the State Social Programme for Equal Rights and Opportunities for Women and Men for the period up to 2021. In particular, it provided for improvement of the legal framework, inclusion of a gender component in economic and social development programmes, expansion of the list of statistical indicators differentiated by article, etc. The programme still has not been fully implemented. In addition, the article proposes a ratification of the Additional Protocol to the European Social Charter providing for collective complaints. The European Committee of Social Rights interprets and details the Charter's provisions in its deliberations and thereby gives significance to its decisions. These activities result in a practice of modern implementation of the provisions of this international treaty, which can be used by the signatory countries in their own practice.

Gender Inequality in National Laws Predicts Estimated Prevalence of Modern Slavery Victims across Countries

ABSTRACT Human exploitation is an egregious human rights violation that disproportionately affects women and girls worldwide. Gender inequality, a major risk factor to female exploitation, is sometimes codified into countries’ legal systems. We examined the predictive value of gender inequality in national laws on the estimated prevalence of modern slavery across countries. Regression analysis revealed significant results. The model with the largest effect size included predictor variables of constitutional laws protecting women from discrimination, equal citizenship rights for women, laws regarding sexual harassment, gender discrimination in employment, domestic violence laws, equality for women in the court system, and freedom of movement for women. Results suggest that reducing structural gender inequalities in national laws could increase women’s safety and security, thereby contributing to solutions aimed at decreasing the overall prevalence of all forms of human exploitation.

ENGLISH: Islamic View on Right to Equal Opportunity to Work for Female Ex-Offenders and Pakistan's International Obligation for Provision of Equal Opportunities for Work

 Women in Muslim society faces obstacles to get employment since it is generally assumed that Islam does not allow women to work as their responsibility is to be shouldered by men. This misapprehension leads to issue of gender discrimination in employment and situation get further worse when women hold criminal record. Therefore this paper sheds lights on Islamic view of gender equality while taking into consideration the natural difference exist between man and woman. Then the study aims to discuss that Shariah recognizes human rights of women in Islam and allows women to work as there is no explicit Quranic verse or tradition which ban jobs of women. The article further elaborates that women with previous criminal record are abandoned by the society and their families which further substantiate their right of to get employment in order to meet their ends. The article further encompasses discussion of conflicting interest of ex-offender women and society and how the same can be settled with harmony while applying principles of Islamic jurisprudence.  The article has referred verses of the Qur’an, Sunnah of the Prophet (S.A.W.) practices of caliphs⁎ and opinion of Muslim jurists to enrich the legal analysis. The articles also encompasses Pakistan’s international obligation for provision of equal opportunities to work for all without discrimination to give an insight about basis to claim right to work for female offenders.

Gender discrimination in employment in Moscow

The article presents gender inequality in the sphere of work in Moscow city. The purpose of this work is to determine the acuteness of discrimination men and women in matters of employment, and to understand how the gender aspect is relevant in the Moscow labor market. People from other regions come to the capital to get a job, and therefore the city of Moscow is the center of employment of Russian citizens from all over the country. It is important to monitor how equal are the opportunities for men and women in the capital to find the desired job, what difficulties candidates face in finding and choosing a job with. I provide a legislative framework designed to ensure the equality of all citizens before the law, and show how the principle of equality is implemented in practice. For this I present the results of the author’s survey of HR experts-managers who specialize in studying the labor market and the processes taking place on it, as well as research conducted by the Headhunter, Superjob job sites, the Hays recruitment agency. As a result, it has been determined that in the labor market both men and women experience discrimination, and this is connected with the opinion of the candidates, they define, where can more realize themselves, and what salary should be for them. At the same time, gender inequality loses its sharpness against the background of other problems, and experts predict a growing decrease in the difference between the positions of men and women in the labor market.

The Implementation of International Law on the Equal Right of Labor of Transgender Minorities in China: Revisiting the Mr. C. Case

The equal right of labor and anti-discrimination in occupation or employment is guaranteed in international conventions and most domestic laws. Revisiting the Mr. C. case, China should conduct legal reform to implement international law on the equal right of labor of employees including transgender minorities. China should enact an anti-discrimination law to transform international law into Chinese domestic law. Employment or occupational discrimination should be added as grounds for legal action. Reversal of burden of proof should be applied in the trial of the cases concerning equal right of labor, and compensation for emotional damage as well as punitive damages as remedies for the victims should be provided for. Efficiency of labor arbitration and administrative labor supervision should be strengthened in eliminating gender discrimination in employment or occupation.

Gender discrimination in employment in China and Russia

The paper researches the problem of gender equality in employment in Russia and China. Starting with the review of the general attitude on the role of the woman in the society in these countries (part 1) the authors proceed with the analysis of national norms and case law. They point that in spite of ratification by both countries of the main international instruments prohibiting gender discrimination in employment these norms did not fully penetrate to the legal system and to the legal culture of China and Russia. Part 2 focuses on the prohibition of employment of women in some occupations and the protection from gender discrimination in Russia. In the part 3 the relevant Chinese experience and legislation is investigated through the comparison with the Russian approach. In conclusions the main common traits of gender based discrimination in employment in both countries are formulated: even though they established anti-discrimination principles to ensure gender equality at the workplace, the lack of clarity in the definition of discrimination and the absence of a general provision on the shift of the burden of proof as well as the absence of norms protecting women who lodged a claim on discrimination against an employer from victimization. In both countries the authors evidence the lack of case law on discrimination and the difficulties in proving discrimination in the rare cases which were brought before the court. The authors also substantiate that the general attitude towards the division of roles between men and women is one of the main reasons of gender discrimination in both countries.

Agricultural commercialisation models, agrarian dynamics and local development in Ghana

The renewed commitment of African states to modernising agriculture has reignited longstanding debates about different models of agricultural commercialisation. Which forms of commercialisation models will reduce land dispossession and the impoverishment of smallholders, and transform smallholder agriculture and the wider economy? Of the three broad models of agriculture commercialisation in this debate – plantation, contract farming and medium-scale commercial farming – contract farming has been identified as central to the future of Africa’s commercial agriculture. This paper provides empirical evidence from Ghana on the impacts of these three models on land, labour/employment, livelihoods and local economic linkages. Our findings show that the plantation and the commercial farming areas have highly commercialised land relations, land scarcity and high land prices, compared to the outgrower area where traditional systems of accessing land still dominate, enabling families to produce their own food crops while also diversifying into wage labour and other activities. Food insecurity was highest in the plantation area followed by the commercial area, but lowest in the outgrower area. Here, semi-proletarianised seasonal workers combine self-provisioning from their own farms with wages, and this results in better livelihood outcomes than for permanent workers in plantations and commercial farms. Due to the processing units in the plantation and the outgrower models, they provided more employment. However, the casualisation of labour and gender discrimination in employment and access to land occur in all three cases. All three models generated strong economic linkages mainly because they combined attributes such as processing, provided markets for nearby farmers, induced state infrastructural development and diffused technology in competitive ways. The effects of the models on household and local development are coproduced by their interaction with pre-existing conditions and wider national economic structures.

Good Girls Revolt Offers Teaching Examples, Discussion Props

This is a review of the first and only season of The Good Girls Revolt, an Amazon Studios show loosely based around the first lawsuit challenging gender discrimination in employment.

Continued export trade, screening-matching and gender discrimination in employment

The screening mechanism of export trade facilitates enterprises to increase their recruitment threshold, which in turn has a biased impact on the employment of heterogeneous individuals. Incorporating export trade, screening-matching and gender discrimination in employment into a unified analysis and applying propensity score matching estimation on the basis of the theoretical framework of micro-enterprise and the optimized behavior of job seekers, this paper examines the relations between export trade of industrial enterprises and female labor employment levels in China during 2005–2007. The results indicate that: (1) the number and ration of female employees are increasing with the size and growth of the enterprise export, regardless of enterprise exports continuity. It demonstrates that export expansion does play a critical role in mitigating gender discrimination in employment. (2) For the enterprise with higher export continuity, there is a significant effect toward improving the number and proportion of female employees, conversely the worse effect. Thus, it is significantly meaningful to mitigate gender discrimination in employment by ensuring the continued export capacity of enterprises. (3) Comparing to the promoting effect of growth in the number of female employees, export has limit effect up on increasing the proportion of female employees. Therefore, it is rather difficult to resolve the issue of gender discrimination in employment by relying completely on exports expansion. Based on research findings, this paper discusses the policy implications in terms of easing gender discrimination in employment and promoting employment equity.

A Qualitative Research of the Causes of Iranian Female Students Immigration to Developed Countries

<p style="margin: 0cm 0cm 4pt; text-align: justify; line-height: normal;">According to the latest data from United Nations population Fund-UNFPA-in 2015, 244 million people, or 3.3 per cent of the world's population lived outside their country of origin. A number of these migrants are skilled and educated women. This movement usually occurs from developing to developed countries in the world like the US, the UK, Germany, England and so on, to achieve new opportunities and a better life. Iran is a developing country, which is suffering from this serious issue. The aim of this study is to identify the causes of Iranian female students' immigration to developed countries from the perspective of female students of Al-Zahra University. The present qualitative study included 20 master and doctoral female students who were completing their degree programs at this University, through purposive sampling. Data was collected via in-depth, semi structured interviews which were audio-recorded and analyzed by Content analysis method. The main themes and sub-themes were “Economic” (including Unemployment, Low income, Inconsistency between field of education and jobs, Gender discrimination in employment and payments delays), “Educational” (Lack of proper facilities in university, professors' lack of knowledge, lack of public respect for well-educated people in society, and Women’s restrictions in selecting certain academic disciplines), “Socio-political” (Limitation of individual freedom, political pressure, Lack of freedom of speech) and “Personal and Familial” Issues (marriage and parental related factors). The findings present a deeper understanding of the main causes of female migration and why these educated women are less likely to return to Iran.</p>

Gender-specification and occupational nouns

This article examines the representation of the sexes in the language of job advertisements in France, given legislation outlawing gender discrimination in employment and the consequent feminist language reform initiatives. Specifically, it analyses a data set collected from the employment sections of the French national newspapers Le Figaro, Le Monde and Aujourd’hui en France, focusing on linguistic strategies that reflect that the advertised position is open to both female and male applicants. The analysis shows that in most cases the gender bias has been removed by means of the minimalist strategy of adding the descriptor H/F (homme/femme = man/woman) to a masculine occupational noun. The analysis also reveals that a mere one-third of the advertisements are truly gender-inclusive, using epicene occupational nouns, or nouns in both the feminine and the masculine forms, and gender-inclusive text, or focusing on the tasks to be accomplished rather than on the job applicant.

Class Action Litigation after Dukes: In Search of a Remedy for Gender Discrimination in Employment

In this Article we argue for substantial reforms to our system of combating workplace gender discrimination in light of the Supreme Court's ruling in Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. v. Dukes. To help counter discrimination victims' decreasing access to the courts, our proposals call for a narrow construction of the holding of Dukes. At the same time, agencies such as the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP), and the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) can better use their regulatory authority to address gender discrimination. Further, regulatory agencies, arbitrators, and courts can mandate mentoring programs to assist employees in overcoming the effects of discrimination and provide a potential pathway for career success.

Post‐Taliban measures to eliminate gender discrimination in employment

Purpose – The issue of discrimination in Afghanistan is pervasive, and the present report focuses on gender discrimination in employment deemed particularly important for immediate policy intervention by the international community. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the measures taken to eliminate gender discrimination in employment since the American‐led invasion in 2001.Design/methodology/approach – The paper is a literature review with potential to inform policy change to improve the employment situation of rural Afghan women. Although there is paucity of data on many facets of Afghan society, this paper synthesises available information regarding measures to improve employment for Afghan women and discusses factors that should be considered in future employment policies.Findings – This paper establishes that many rural Afghan women today experience cultural and religious barriers to employment. The paper argues that much as there have been significant improvements in the employment situation of...

Reading between the Lines: Analyzing the Supreme Court’s Views on Gender Discrimination in Employment, 1971–1982

Supreme Court decisions can be read on two levels: as prescriptive statements of what legally can or cannot be done and as discourses that define the Court’s view of social problems. This article explores this latter role through a content analysis of Court decisions that directly address the struggle for women’s equality in the workplace during the 1970s. As it formulated the legal rules applicable to gender discrimination, the Court also gave social and political meaning to the concept of equality. Examining this process of problem definition in the judicial arena provides a different perspective for viewing Supreme Court decisions.

Rat Races and Glass Ceilings: Career Paths in Organizations

In an ongoing organization, such as a large law partnership, employees are motivated not only by current rewards but also by the prospect of promotion, and the opportunity to influence policy and make rules in the future. This leads to a dynamic programming problem in contract design. We model career design in such a firm as a recursive mechanism design problem in an overlapping generations environment. Agents entering the firm may differ in their private characteristics which affect their costs of effort. We find that under recursive structure, a profit-maximizing principal offers, and promotion-motivated agents accept, rat-race contracts with very low wages and high effort levels. With wages driven down to zero, promotions become the main instrument to discriminate among agents in an adverse selection environment. The optimal adverse selection contract introduces a promotion barrier, or a glass ceiling, for the high cost agents. We thus find that the issues of inefficiently high work levels (the rat-race) and of unequal promotion rates (the glass ceiling) are intimately interconnected. We apply this framework to equal opportunity and gender discrimination in employment